This article is about a subculture. For a bald head, see baldness.
Skinheads, named after their cropped or shaven heads, are members of a working class subculture that originated in Britain in the 1960s, where they were heavily influenced by the rude boys of the West Indies and the mods of the UK.
In subsequent decades, the skinhead subculture spread to other parts of Europe, North America and other continents. Politically, skinheads range from far-right and racist to far-left and anti-fascist; and everything in between (including apolitical). Fashion-wise, they range from a more cleancut mod-influenced 1960s style to less-strict punk- and hardcore-influenced styles.
Skinhead with scooter
1 History
1.1 Mod origins
1.2 Split with the mods
1.3 Offshoots and revivals
2 Racism and anti-racism
2.1 Political categories
2.1.1 Anti-racist
2.1.2 Apolitical
2.1.3 Left wing
2.1.4 Right wing
2.1.5 White Power
3 Style and clothing
3.1 Style categories
3.1.1 Traditional
3.1.2 Oi!
3.1.3 Hardcore
3.2 Laces and braces
3.3 Tattoos
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 Anti-racist
3.3.3 White Power
4 Music
5 Glossary of terms
6 Footnotes
7 External links
History
The original skinhead subculture started in the second half of the 1960s in the United Kingdom, and that first wave mostly faded out in the early 1970s. The skinhead subculture was revived in the UK to a notable extent in the late 1970s, and has since spread to different countries and has adapted to various cultural trends and social conditions.
Mod origins
In the late 1950s, Great Britain's entrenched class system limited most working class people's educational, housing, and economic opportunities. However, Britain's post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths invested in new fashions popularized by American soul groups, British R&B bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street clothing merchants.
English Skinheads in late 1960s
These youths became known as the mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism — and devotion to fashion, music and scooters. Mods of lesser means made do with practical styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: steel-toe boots, straight-leg jeans or Sta-Prest trousers, button-up shirts, and braces (called suspenders in the USA). When possible, these working-class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed soul, ska, bluebeat and rocksteady music.
Split with the mods
Around 1965, a schism developed between the peacock mods, who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the hard mods (also known as gang mods), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working-class image. Also known as lemonheads and peanuts, these hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968. Their shorter hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and a disadvantage in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more bourgeois hippie culture popular at the time.
In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early reggae (before the tempo slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like black nationalism and Rastafarianism). Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look, as a marketing strategy. The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, notably Skinhead and Skinhead Escapes.
Offshoots and revivals
By the 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the suedeheads (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), smoothies (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and bootboys (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and hooliganism). Some fashion trends returned to mod roots, reintroducing brogues, loafers, suits, and the slacks-and-sweater look.
In the mid-1970s, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock and Oi! music. Skinheads with even shorter hair and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly as a result of their involvement with football hooliganism. These skinheads wore punk-influenced styles like higher boots than before (14-20 eyelets) and tighter jeans (sometimes splattered with bleach). However, there were still several skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles. Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond The UK and Europe. One major example is that in the United States, certain segments of the hardcore punk scene embraced skinhead style and developed its own version of the subculture.
Racism and anti-racism
In the late 1960s, some skinheads (including black skinheads) had engaged in Paki bashing (random violence against Pakistanis and other South Asian immigrants). However, there had also been anti-racist and leftist skinheads from the beginning, especially in areas such as Scotland and Northern England. In the 1970s, the racist violence became more politicized, with the involvement of far right organizations like the National Front and British Movement, which included many skinheads among their ranks. Those organizations' positions against blacks and Asians appealed to many working class skinheads who blamed immigrants for economic and social problems. This led to the public's misconception that skinheads are neo-Nazis.
In an attempt to counter this stereotype, some skinheads formed anti-racist organizations. Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP) started in the United States in 1987, and Anti-Racist Action (ARA) began in 1988 as an anti-racist movement, not a political movement. SHARP spread to the UK and beyond, and other less-political skinheads also spoke out against neo-Nazis and in support of traditional skinhead culture. Two examples are the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase Spirit of 69), and the publishers of the Hard As Nails zine in England.
Political categories
There are several different political categories of skinheads. However, many skinheads don't fit into any of these categories. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant forces of skinhead political groupings. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Anti-racist
Anti-racist skinheads, sometimes known as SHARPs, are aggressively opposed to neo-Nazism and racism, although not always political in terms of other issues. The label SHARP is sometimes used to describe all anti-racist skinheads, even if they aren't members of a SHARP organization. Some anti-racist skinheads have been involved with political groups such as Anti-Fascist Action or Anti-Racist Action. White power and traditional skinheads (especially in the U.S.) sometimes refer to them as baldies.
Apolitical
Apolitical skinheads either oppose all politics in general, are politically moderate, or keep their personal political views out of the skinhead subculture. Skinheads on either extreme of the political spectrum sometimes refer to this type as a fencewalker.
Left wing
Left wing skinheads are anti-racist and anti-fascist, taking a militant pro-working class stance. This category includes redskins and anarchist skinheads. The most well-known organization in this category is Red and Anarchist Skinheads.
Right wing
Right wing skinheads are conservative and patriotic, but not necessarily extreme or fascist. This type of skinhead seems to be common in the United States.
White Power
White power or Nazi skinheads are racist, extremely nationalist and highly political. Many Nazi skinheads have no connection to the original 1960s skinhead culture in terms of style or interests. SHARPs and traditional skinheads often refer to them as boneheads.
Style and clothing
In addition to short hair, skinheads are identified by their specific clothing styles. Skinhead fashions have evolved somewhat since the formation of the subculture in the 1960s, and certain clothing styles have been more prevelant in specific geographic locations and time periods. The following list includes many of the clothing articles that have been worn by skinheads.
Hair:
Men: Originally, between a 2 and 3 grade clip-guard (short, but not bald); beginning in the late 1970s, typically shaved closer, with no greater than a number 2 guard. Now some skinheads clip their hair with no guard, and some even shave it with a razor. This started with the introduction of the Oi! scene. Some skinheads sport sideburns of various styles, usually neatly trimmed.
Women: In the 1960s, many female skinheads had normal or mod-influenced hairstyles. During the revival, many started wearing a Chelsea hairstyle, which, in some cases, is a shorter punk-influenced version of the feathercut. A feathercut is short on top (the crown), with fringes at the front, back and sides. Some Chelsea cuts are shaved almost entirely at the back, only leaving fringes in the front, and bangs. Feathercuts tend to have longer fringes.
Tops:
Men: fitted Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus, Jaytex, Arnold Palmer and other brands of button-up or polo shirts; Lonsdale shirts or sweatshirts; V-neck sweaters; cardigan sweaters; sweater vests; T-shirts (plain white or with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture); fitted blazers. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear tailored suits — particularly tonic (also called shark-skin) suits, so named for the shiny material. Some Oi!! and hardcore-oriented skinheads wear plain white wifebeater undershirts, especially in North America.
Women: Same as men, with addition of dress suits — comprised of a ¾ length jacket and matching short skirt.
Coats: MA-1 type flight jackets (popular brands: Warrior and Alpha), usually black or green; blue denim jackets (Levi's or Wrangler); Harrington jackets; monkey jackets; Crombie-style overcoats; sheepskin 3/4 length coats; donkey jackets; parkas.
Bottoms:
Men: Levi's, Lee or Wrangler jeans (usually blue), straight leg with rolled cuffs (turn-ups) to show off boots, often with hem cut off and sewn to give neater, flatter turn-up; Sta-Prest flat-fronted slacks and other trousers; bleachers (jeans splattered with bleach to resemble camouflage trousers), popular among punk-influenced Oi! skins; combat trousers (plain or camouflage), popular among Oi! skins and scooter boys.
Women: Same jeans and trousers as men, or skirts and stockings. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the punk-influenced skinhead revival.
Footwear:
Men: boots, originally army surplus or generic workboots, then Dr. Martens (AKA Docs, DMs or Doc Martens) boots and shoes, and later brogues and loafers (especially among suedeheads). Other brands of boots have become popular, partly because Dr. Martens and Grinders footwear are no longer made in England. During the 1960s, steel-toe boots were called bovver boots — thought to derive from the Cockney pronunciation of bother (in this context, meaning violence).
Women: Dr. Martens boots or shoes, monkey boots, loafers or brogues.
Hats: Trilby hats; pork pie hats; flat caps (AKA Scally cap, Benny or driver cap) or winter woolen hats (without bobble). Less common have been bowler hats (mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film A Clockwork Orange).
Braces: Various colours, usually no more than ¾ inch in width. In some areas, wider braces may identify a skinhead as either white power or a poseur. Braces are worn up in an X or Y-shape at the back. Some Oi!-oriented skinheads wear their hanging braces down, so they can be seen when wearing a jacket.
Badges: Button badges or sewn-on fabric patches with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture. Politically-minded skinheads sometimes wear badges related to their ideological views.
Style categories
There are several different types of skinheads in terms of style. Some skinheads don't fit into any of these categories, and many display characteristics of more than one category. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant skinhead styles. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Traditional
Also known as Trads or Trojan skinheads, traditional skinheads identify with the original 1960s skinhead subculture in terms of music, style, culture and working class pride (see Spirit of 69). Unlike the other categories of skinheads, many traditionalists do not regard attitudes toward politics or racism as central to the subculture.
Oi!
Oi! and punk-skinheads originated after the development of punk rock in the 1970s. They often have shorter hair and more tattoos than 1960s skinheads, and wear items such as higher boots, tighter jeans, T-shirts and flight jackets. Although the original Oi! bands advocated a pro-worker populist stance, the Oi! music fanbase includes a wide range of political beliefs, from far left to far right.
Hardcore
Hardcore skinheads originated in the United States hardcore punk scene (with bands such as Iron Cross, Agnostic Front, Cro-mags, Sheer Terror, Warzone and Murphy's Law). Originating in the late 1970s, they differ from traditional skinheads by their musical tastes and a style of dress that is less strict. Political views vary, and are not essential to this group.
Laces and braces
Some skinheads, particularly highly political ones, attach significance to the color of boot laces, braces, and (less commonly) flight jackets. Some use them to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colors used have varied regionally, so only skinheads from the same area are likely to interpret them accurately. In many areas laces must be 'laddered' - arranged with the outside laces horizontal and parallel, resembling a ladder - to be considered of any significance. The "braces and laces game" has largely fallen into disuse, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colors for fashion purposes.
Tattoos
Tattoos have been popular among many skinheads since at least the 1970s revival. The following are examples of tattoo designs that have been popular among some skinheads. In 1980s Britain, some skinheads had tattoos on their faces or foreheads, although the practice has since fallen out of favour.
General
Crucified skinhead (designed by Mick Furbank for the Last Resort skinhead shop in Aldgate) or other skinhead images; bulldog; spider webs on outer elbows or other areas of the body, Sailor Jerry-style tattoos; sparrows; boots; music-related logos; national or regional flags; images related to A Clockwork Orange; laurel wreath; rose; crossed riveting hammers (similar to those in West Ham United logo); weapons (e.g. brass knuckles, bats, switchblades); slogans such as: Oi!, ACAB (All Cops Are Bastards), SKIN, Skinhead or Bootboy.
Anti-racist
Trojan helmet; anti-Nazi logo; skinhead smashing a racist symbol; crucified skinhead (two-tone black and white), images of black and white skinheads together (e.g.shaking hands); anti-racist slogans (e.g. Smash Fascism, AFA; SHARP; ANTIFA). (Note: redskins and anarchist skins may have political symbols such as red stars, red flags, hammer and sickles or anarchy symbols.)
White Power
Swastika or other World War II Nazi symbols (such as SS symbols); three 7s (Afrikaner Resistance Movement logo); flags (e.g. of the wearer's home country, of Nazi Germany or of the American Confederacy); crossed claw hammers or other Hammerskins symbols,; Ku Klux Klan symbols; white nationalist slogans such as: White Pride, White Power, WP, 88 (Heil Hitler), 1488 (Fourteen Words/Heil Hitler), HFFH (Hammerskins Forever, Forever Hammerskins), Blood & Honour (or B&H); Celtic cross or other Celtic symbols; Runes, Vikings or other Nordic symbols (which white power skins use to symbolize white culture.)
Music
Originally, the skinhead subculture was associated with ska and reggae music, such as that of Desmond Dekker, Laurel Aitken, Symarip and Joe the Boss. The link between skinheads and reggae led to a sub-genre known as skinhead reggae. Other music genres popular with early skinheads were Motown, Northern Soul, Rocksteady, and mod RnB. Suedeheads of the 1970s were also known to listen to British glam rock bands like The Sweet and Mott the Hoople.
The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was 2 Tone (also called Two Tone), named after a Coventry, England record label featuring bands such as The Specials, Madness, and The Selecter. Two Tone was the musical integration of ska, rocksteady and punk rock. The label scored many top 20 hits, and eventually a number one. During this time (1979-1981), skinheads were a common sight on the UK high streets.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, Oi! music became accepted by many skinheads and punks. Oi! continues to be one of the most popular genres among skinheads. Musically, it combines elements of punk rock, football chants, pub rock and British glam rock. The Oi! scene was partly a response to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were, in the words of The Business guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic...and losing touch". Some forefathers of Oi! were Sham 69, Cock Sparrer and Menace. The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who championed the genre in Sounds magazine.Well-known Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include Angelic Upstarts, Blitz, The Business, Skrewdriver, Last Resort, Combat 84 and The 4-Skins. Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included both skins, punks and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts).
Although many white power skinheads listened to Oi! music, they developed a separate musical culture known as Rock Against Communism (RAC). The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a neo-Nazi band after the first lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed. RAC started out musically similar to Oi! and punk rock, and has adopted some elements from heavy metal and rock music.
American Oi! began in the 1980s with bands such as The Press, Iron Cross (whose lead singer's father was a refugee from Nazi Germany), The Bruisers (their former singer now in Dropkick Murphys), and Anti-Heros (who sued the makers of American History X for wrongful use of their logo). American skinheads also welcomed hardcore punk into the skinhead subculture, with bands like Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-mags. Contemporary American Oi! bands usually mix early American hardcore and 1970s UK streetpunk to arrive at a style all their own.
Glossary of terms
3i's (or 3-eyes), 8i's (or 8-eyes) etc.
Leather shoes or boots, referring to the number of rows of lace eyelets. Other common numbers are 10, 12, 14, 18, and 20.
Bleachers
Blue jeans treated with household bleach to create a military camouflage-like pattern. They were popular among punk-influenced Oi! skins of the late 1970s and the 1980s.
Bonehead
A derisive term used by traditional and anti-racist skinheads for a neo-Nazi skinhead.
A derisive term used by traditional skinheads for punk-influenced Oi! skinheads.
Bootboy
Another word for skinhead.
A specific gang-oriented skinhead offshoot that started in the late early 1970s, involving a longer hairstyle and mod appearance, but still wearing boots. Their main focus was football hooliganism.[17]
Boot party
(primarily USA) Euphemism for a skinhead fight involving kicking, especially when one side outnumbers the other.
Bovver boy
(primarily UK) Another term for skinhead, specifically one who frequently seeks out enemies to fight. Opponents are usually members of rival subcultures or football firms. Bovver is Cockney dialect for bother (in this case, referring to violence).
Braces
A fashion accessory for holding up trousers, consisting of a pair of elasticized bands which go over the shoulders and fasten to the trousers (usually with metal clips). In North America they are commonly called suspenders, although many skinheads use the British term. (Suspenders in UK English means a garter belt.)
Chelsea
(primarily North America)
A female skinhead (also called a skinhead girl or skingirl or skinbird).
The usual haircut of a female skinhead, consisting of short hair on the crown, sides and back; with a longer fringe in the front and on the neck. Also known as a feathercut.
Crucified Skinhead
An image depicting a skinhead suspended from a cross; often seen on T-shirts and patches, or as a tattoo. It symbolizes the hardships of the skinhead lifestyle (such as being vilified as racist even if one is not). It was designed in the 1980s by Mick Furbank for the Last Resort skinhead shop in Aldgate, London. The shop used it on T-shirts, advertisements and plastic bags.
Fence-walker (or Fence-sitter)
A derisive term used by political skinheads for those who refuse to take sides, or who will associate with opposing groups.
Freshcut
A skinhead (usually young) who is new to the subculture. There is no consensus about how long one must be part of the skinhead subculture before this label no longer applies.
Oi Toy
A female who has sex with several male skinheads; a skinhead groupie.
Skank
A dance style associated with ska music.
Ultraviolence
Acts of extreme violence, often random, with no clear reason. It comes from the fictional Nadsat dialect featured in the Anthony Burgess novel A Clockwork Orange.
Footnotes
^ Rawlings, Terry (2000). Mod: A Very British Phenomenon. London: Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-7119-6813-6.
^ http://www.modculture.co.uk/culture/archive.php?category=modscenepast Articles from Modculture.com
^ Barnes, Richard (1979). Mods!. London: Eel Pie Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85965-173-8.
^ Edwards, Dave. Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD020.
^ Old Skool Jim. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD169.
^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3).
^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
^ Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness
^ http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm
^ Straight From His Own Gob - Noddy Holder interview
^ http://www.brumbeat.net/aslade.htm
^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A454925
^ http://www.skinhead.no/content/articles/richardallen.asp
^ http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/sex/gensexco.htm
^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
^ a b de Konigh, Michael (2004). Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD003.
^ a b Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3).
^ Violence In Our Minds - The Skinhead Nation
^ Monty Montgomery of the Pyramids/Symarip interview
^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
^ No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
^ REDSKINS - The Interview, 1986
^ http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/newyorkskinheads.htm
^ Neither Red Or Racist - The Skinhead Nation
^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/oppressed/
^ http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/sharpskinheads.htm
^ No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
^ http://www.stuffmagazine.com/articles/index.aspx?id=1519
^ Knight, Nick (1997). Skinhead. London: Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-7119-0052-3).
^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3).
^ RudeBoy/Skinhead Style - Ruder Than the Web!
^ http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/interviews/rhkiw.htm
^ http://2-tone.info/articles/books.html
^ Moskowitz, David V. (2006). Caribbean Popular Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 270. ISBN 0-313-33158-8
^ http://www.thespecials.com/history3.php
^ The 2-Tone discography
^ Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993
^ Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
^ Robb, John (2006). Punk Rock: An Oral History (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7
^ Turner, Jeff; Garry Bushell (2005). Cockney Reject. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1 84454 0545
^ http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/1196/rejects.html
^ Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3).
^ http://www.aryanunity.com/memoirs8.html
^ http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdriverinterview.htm
^ http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdrivecuttings.htm
^ http://www.skrewdriver.net/diamond.html
^ Sab Grey Weblog
^ IMDb
^ TAANG! RECORDS
External links
Smiling Smash Chas Smash of Madness discusses skinhead culture
Reggae, Reggae, Reggae The skinhead movement and reggae music
Skinhead Nation Stories from skinhead history in Europe and the US
Skinhead Moonstomp Oi! and reggae MP3 site
Oi! the Truth History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
Skinhead Style Traditional skinhead fashions
Trojan Records Site with information about ska and skinheads
2 Tone Info Information about the 2 Tone scene
